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Wednesday, 11 January 2017
INTRODUCTION TO LANS, WANS AND OTHER KINDS OF AREA NETWORKS
INTRODUCTION TO LANS, WANS AND OTHER KINDS OF AREA
NETWORKS
One way to categorize the different types of computer network designs is by their scope or scale. For historical reasons, the networking industry refers to nearly every type of design as some kind of area network. Common types of area networks are:
- LAN - Local Area
Network
- WAN - Wide Area Network
- WLAN - Wireless Local
Area Network
- MAN - Metropolitan Area Network
- SAN - Storage Area Network, System Area Network,
Server Area Network, or sometimes Small Area Network
- CAN - Campus Area Network, Controller Area
Network, or sometimes Cluster Area Network
- PAN - Personal Area Network
LAN and WAN are the two primary and best-known categories of area
networks, while the others have emerged with technology advances
Note that network types differ from network topologies (such
as bus, ring and star). (See also - Introduction to
Network Topologies.)
LAN: Local Area Network
A LAN
connects network devices over a relatively short distance. A networked office
building, school, or home usually contains a single LAN, though sometimes one
building will contain a few small LANs (perhaps one per room), and occasionally
a LAN will span a group of nearby buildings. In TCP/IP networking, a LAN is
often but not always implemented as a single IP subnet.
In addition to operating in a limited space, LANs are also
typically owned, controlled, and managed by a single person or organization.
They also tend to use certain connectivity technologies, primarily Ethernet
and Token Ring.
WAN: Wide Area Network
As the term implies, a WAN spans
a large physical distance. The Internet is the largest WAN, spanning the Earth.
A WAN is a geographically-dispersed collection of LANs. A network
device called a router
connects LANs to a WAN.
In IP networking, the router maintains both a LAN address and a WAN
address.
A WAN differs from a LAN in several important ways. Most WANs (like
the Internet) are not owned by any one organization but rather exist under
collective or distributed ownership and management. WANs tend to use technology
like ATM, Frame Relay
and X.25 for
connectivity over the longer distances.
LAN, WAN and Home Networking
Residences typically employ one LAN and connect to the Internet WAN
via an Internet Service
Provider (ISP) using a broadband modem.
The ISP provides a WAN IP address to the modem, and all of the computers on the
home network use LAN (so-called private) IP addresses. All computers on
the home LAN can communicate directly with each other but must go through a
central network gateway,
typically a broadband router,
to reach the ISP.
Other Types of Area Networks
While LAN and WAN are by far the most popular network types
mentioned, you may also commonly see references to these others:
- Wireless Local Area Network - A LAN based on Wi-Fi
wireless network technology
- Metropolitan Area Network - A network spanning a
physical area larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN, such as a city. A
MAN is typically owned and operated by a single entity such as a
government body or large corporation.
- Campus Area Network - A network spanning multiple
LANs but smaller than a MAN, such as on a university or local business
campus.
- Storage Area Network - Connects servers to data
storage devices through a technology like Fibre Channel.
- System Area Network (also known as Cluster
Area Network) - Links high-performance computers with high-speed
connections in a cluster configuration.
USING YOUR MOUSE
USING YOUR MOUSE
Just as you would use your hands to interact with objects
in the physical world, you can use your mouse to interact with items on your
computer screen. You can move objects, open them, change them, throw them away,
and perform other actions, all by pointing and clicking with your mouse.
A mouse typically has two buttons: a primary button
(usually the left button) and a secondary button (usually the right button).
You will use the primary button most often. Most mice also include a scroll
wheel between the buttons to help you scroll through documents and webpages
more easily. On some mice, the scroll wheel can be pressed to act as a third
button. Advanced mice might have additional buttons that can perform other
functions.
Parts of a mouse
Mouse pointers
Place your mouse beside your keyboard on a clean, smooth
surface, such as a mouse pad. Hold the mouse gently, with your index finger
resting on the primary button and your thumb resting on the side. To move the
mouse, slide it slowly in any direction. Don't twist it—keep the front of the
mouse aimed away from you. As you move the mouse, a pointer (see picture) on
your screen moves in the same direction. If you run out of room to move your
mouse on your desk or mouse pad, just pick up the mouse and bring it back
closer to you.
Hold
the mouse lightly, keeping your wrist straight
Pointing to an item on the screen means moving your mouse
so the pointer appears to be touching the item. When you point to something, a
small box often appears that describes the item. For example, when you point to
the Recycle Bin on the desktop, a box appears with this information:
"Contains the files and folders that you have deleted."
Pointing
to an object often reveals a descriptive message about it
The pointer can change depending on what you're pointing
to. For example, when you point to a link in your web browser,
the pointer changes from an arrow to
a hand with a pointing finger .
Most mouse actions combine pointing with pressing one of
the mouse buttons. There are four basic ways to use your mouse buttons:
clicking, double-clicking, right-clicking, and dragging.
To click an item, point to the item on the screen, and then
press and release the primary button (usually the left button).
Clicking is most often used to select (mark) an item or
open a menu. This is sometimes called single-clicking or left-clicking.
To double-click an item, point to the item on the screen,
and then click twice quickly. If the two clicks are spaced too far apart, they
might be interpreted as two individual clicks rather than as one double-click.
Double-clicking is most often used to open items on your
desktop. For example, you can start a program or open a folder by double-clicking
its icon on
the desktop.
Tip
- If
you have trouble double-clicking, you can adjust the double-click speed
(the amount of time acceptable between clicks). Follow these steps:
2.
Click the Buttons tab, and then, under Double-click speed,
move the slider to increase or decrease the speed.
To right-click an item, point to the item on the screen,
and then press and release the secondary button (usually the right button).
Right-clicking an item usually displays a list of things
you can do with the item. For example, when you right-click the Recycle Bin on
your desktop, Windows displays a menu allowing you to open it, empty it, delete
it, or see its properties. If you're ever unsure of what to do with something,
right-click it.
Right-clicking
the Recycle Bin opens a menu of related commands
You can move items around your screen by dragging them. To
drag an object, point to the object on the screen, press and hold the primary
button, move the object to a new location, and then release the primary button.
Dragging (sometimes called dragging and dropping) is most
often used to move files and folders to a different location and to move
windows and icons around on your screen.
If your mouse has a scroll wheel, you can use it to scroll
through documents and webpages. To scroll down, roll the wheel backward (toward
you). To scroll up, roll the wheel forward (away from you).
You can change your mouse settings to suit your personal
preferences. For example, you can change how fast your mouse pointer moves
around the screen, or change the pointer's appearance. If you're left-handed,
you can switch the primary button to be the right button. For more information,
see Change mouse settings.
USING YOUR KEYBOARD
USING YOUR KEYBOARD
Whether you're writing a letter or calculating numerical
data, your keyboard is the main way to enter information into your computer.
But did you know you can also use your keyboard to control your computer?
Learning just a few simple keyboard commands (instructions to your computer)
can help you work more efficiently. This article covers the basics of keyboard
operation and gets you started with keyboard commands.
The keys on your keyboard can be divided into several
groups based on function:
- Typing (alphanumeric) keys. These keys include the same letter, number,
punctuation, and symbol keys found on a traditional typewriter.
- Control keys. These keys are used alone or in combination with
other keys to perform certain actions. The most frequently used control
keys are Ctrl, Alt, the Windows logo key ,
and Esc.
- Function keys. The function keys are used to perform specific tasks.
They are labeled as F1, F2, F3, and so on, up to F12. The functionality of
these keys differs from program to program.
- Navigation keys. These keys are used for moving around in documents or
webpages and editing text. They include the arrow keys, Home, End, Page
Up, Page Down, Delete, and Insert.
- Numeric keypad. The numeric keypad is handy for entering numbers
quickly. The keys are grouped together in a block like a conventional
calculator or adding machine.
The following illustration shows how these keys are
arranged on a typical keyboard. Your keyboard layout might be different.
Typing text
Whenever you need to type something in a program, e‑mail
message, or text box, you'll see a blinking vertical line ( ). That's the cursor, also called the insertion
point. It shows where the text that you type will begin. You can move
the cursor by clicking in the desired location with the mouse, or by using the
navigation keys (see the "Using navigation keys" section of this
article).
In addition to letters, numerals, punctuation marks, and
symbols, the typing keys also include Shift, Caps Lock, Tab, Enter, the
Spacebar, and Backspace.
Key name
|
How to use it
|
Shift
|
Press Shift in combination with a letter to type
an uppercase letter. Press Shift in combination with another key to type the
symbol shown on the upper part of that key.
|
Caps Lock
|
Press Caps Lock once to type all letters as
uppercase. Press Caps Lock again to turn this function off. Your keyboard
might have a light indicating whether Caps Lock is on.
|
Tab
|
Press Tab to move the cursor several spaces
forward. You can also press Tab to move to the next text box on a form.
|
Enter
|
Press Enter to move the cursor to the beginning
of the next line. In a dialog box, press Enter to select the
highlighted button.
|
Spacebar
|
Press the Spacebar to move the cursor one space
forward.
|
Backspace
|
Press Backspace to delete the character before
the cursor, or the selected text.
|
Using
keyboard shortcuts
Keyboard shortcuts are ways to perform actions by using your keyboard. They're called
shortcuts because they help you work faster. In fact, almost any action or
command you can perform with a mouse can be performed faster using one or more
keys on your keyboard.
In Help topics, a plus sign (+) between two or more keys
indicates that those keys should be pressed in combination. For example, Ctrl+A
means to press and hold Ctrl and then press A. Ctrl+Shift+A means to press and
hold Ctrl and Shift and then press A.
Find program shortcuts
You can do things in most programs by using the keyboard.
To see which commands have keyboard shortcuts, open a menu. The shortcuts (if
available) are shown next to the menu items.
UTILITY SOFTWARE
UTILITY SOFTWARE
Utility software is system software designed to help analyze, configure,
optimize or maintain a computer.It is a type of system software, used to support the computer
infrastructure;
by contrast with application software, which is aimed at directly
performing tasks that benefit ordinary users.
Types of utilities
- Anti-virus utilities scan for computer viruses.
- Archivers output a stream or a single file when
provided with a directory or a set of files. Archive suites may
include compression and encryption capabilities. Some archive utilities
have a separate un-archive utility for the reverse operation.
- Backup software makes copies of all information stored
on a disk and restore either the entire disk (e.g. in an event of disk failure) or selected files (e.g. in an event
of accidental deletion).
- Clipboard managers expand the clipboard
functionality of an operating system .
- Cryptographic utilities encrypt and decrypt streams
and files.
- Data compression utilities output a shorter stream or a
smaller file when provided with a stream or file.
- Data synchronization utilities establish consistency among
data from a source to a target data storage and vice versa. There are
several branches of this type of utility:
- File synchronization utilities maintain consistency
between two sources. They may be used to create redundancy or backup
copies but are also used to help users carry their digital music, photos
and video in their mobile devices.
- Revision control utilities can recreate a coherent
structure where multiple users simultaneously modify the same file.
- Disk checkers scan an operating hard drive and check
for logical (file system) or physical errors.
- Disk cleaners find files that are unnecessary to
computer operation, or take up considerable amounts of space. Disk cleaner
helps the user to decide what to delete
when their hard disk is full.
- Disk compression utilities transparently compress/uncompressed the contents of a disk,
increasing the capacity of the disk.
- Disk defragmenters detect computer files
whose contents are scattered across several locations on the hard disk,
and move the fragments to one location to increase efficiency.
- Disk partition editors divide an individual drive into
multiple logical drives, each with its own file system which can be
mounted by the operating system and treated as an individual drive.
- Disk space analyzers provide a visualization of disk space
usage by getting the size for each folder (including sub folders) &
files in folder or drive. showing the distribution of the used space.
- File manager provide a convenient method of
performing routine data management, email recovery and management tasks,
such as deleting, renaming, cataloging, uncataloging, moving, copying,
merging, generating and modifying folders and data sets.
- Hex editors directly modify the text or data of a
file. These files could be data or an actual program.
- Memory testers check for memory failures.
- Network utilities analyze the computer's network
connectivity, configure network settings, check data transfer or log
events.
- Package managers are used to configure, install or keep
up to date other software on a computer.
- Registry cleaners clean and optimize the Windows Registry by removing old registry keys that
are no longer in use.
- Screensavers were desired to prevent phosphor burn-in on CRT and plasma computer monitors by blanking the screen or filling
it with moving images or patterns when the computer is not in use.
Contemporary screensavers are used primarily for entertainment or
security.
- System monitors monitor resources and performance in a
computer system.
- System profilers provide detailed information about the
software installed and hardware attached to the computer
PAGE BREAKS AND SECTION BREAKS
PAGE BREAKS AND SECTION BREAKS
When we add a new story, we want it to begin on a new page.
To do this, you can add breaks. There are two types of breaks, page breaks and
section breaks. Section breaks allow you to format things like headers and
footers differently. For example, we don't want headers on pages with a title,
but we do want them on other pages. Section breaks are ideal for this. If you
didn't have them, each page would have the same header.
Scroll to the end of your first story, and left click on a
new line. You should see the cursor flashing:
Click on the Page Layout tab at the top of Word. Locate the Page Setup panel and the Breaks item:
Click on Breaks to see the following menu:
The one we want is Section Breaks > Next Page. What this does is to add a new page to your document, and a new section. Your cursor should now be flashing on the new blank page.
To check that you have indeed added a new section, have a look in the bottom left of word. You should see a Section area on your Status Bar:
If you can't see the Section area, right click on the blue bar. From the menu that appears, click on Section:
If you were to click onto, say, page 1 of your story, the Section part of the Status Bar will read Section 1 instead of Section 2.
But with your cursor flashing on your new blank page, and in section 2, insert a new story just like you did for the first one.
You should find that all the text in your new story is formatted to the same as the first one. In other words, it will be formatted to the Normal style that we modified. This is fine, but the title isn't.
So highlight just the title of your new story. To change the style to the Fairy_Tales_Title style you set up, click back on the Home tab to see all the styles. Although you could select the style from the list, click the small arrow in the bottom right of the Styles panel, circled in red in the image below:
You should find that a menu will appear on the right of your screen, and stay there. To get rid of it, click that small arrow again. But the list displays all the styles that have been set up, including the one we want. So, with your title highlighted, click the Fairy_Tales_Title style from the list:
Your title of the second story will then change to match
the first one in your booklet.
Add the remaining three stories in the same manner as you
did for the second one:
- Insert
a Section Break
- Insert
the story
- Change
the style of the title
When you're done, you should have a document with 5
stories. You should have 5 sections and 19 pages. (If you used a different font
and font size than the one we used you may have more or fewer pages.)
We'll
add a cover page and a contents page next. But we need two blank pages at the
start. So move your cursor to the very start of your document, on the top line.
(Hold down the UP arrow on your keyboard until it can't move any further.)
Now insert two more section breaks. (Page Layout
tab, then Breaks > Section Break > Next Page.) Your first story
will then start in Section 3. The first blank page will be Section 1, and the
second blank page will be Section 2. With your cursor flashing at the top of
Section 1, change your Style to Normal, if it's not already set to that style.
Otherwise, when you press the enter key you may get the Fairy Tales Heading
style for each paragraph instead.
In the next part, learn how to add a cover page to your
booklet.
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